Investigation of commonly used medicinal plants in the herbal markets of Isfahan, Iran

Articles in Press

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

1 Assistant Professor, Department of Biology Education, Farhangian University, P.O. Box 14665-889, Tehran, Iran

2 Assistant Professor, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Payame Noor University, P.O. Box 19395-3697, Tehran, Iran

10.22108/tbj.2025.144121.1296

Abstract

Herbal markets play an important role in the exchange of medicinal knowledge between people. Studying the plants found in herbal markets is crucial for understanding their role in health, science, economics, and culture. This study aimed to investigate the contemporary usage of medicinal plants in traditional medicine practices in Isfahan, Iran. An ethnobotanical survey was conducted during different seasons of 2024. Data were collected through interviews with informants in the herbal markets of Isfahan by using a semi–structured questionnaire. Samples were collected and identified by botanical taxonomic method. Data were analyzed using quantitative value indices: RFC, UV, RI, and ICF. By surveying herbal markets and analyzing plant samples, 82 medicinal plants were documented. Most recorded medicinal plant species were used to treat respiratory system problems. This study found that Avishan, Ostokhodos, and Babooneh are the most popular medicinal plants among Isfahan residents. The study also revealed a preference for native plant species and the use of plant parts such as flowers, leaves, and seeds to treat different ailments. The results showed that while the study highlights the significance of medicinal plants in Isfahan’s culture, it also identifies challenges such as a lack of standardized regulations, limited customer awareness, and quality control issues. Overall, this research underscores the potential of medicinal plants in Isfahan and emphasizes the need to address existing challenges to ensure the sustainable development of this industry.

Keywords

Main Subjects

Full Text

Introduction

Medicinal plants have been an integral part of human health and well-being for centuries. These plants have served as a primary source of medicine and food, and they continue to be valued for their natural and organic characteristics. A diverse range of medicinal plants is used in various forms, both raw and processed, across the pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetic industries (Yang et al., 2024). The use of medicinal plants in traditional medicine can be traced back thousands of years. In ancient civilizations like Egypt, China, and India, these plants were widely employed in therapeutic practices. Traditional knowledge and experience related to medicinal plants have been passed down through generations. Medicinal plants are essential for sustainable development, and Asian countries possess significant potential in the field of medicinal plant products, offering promising opportunities for investment and growth (Astutik et al., 2019). Medicinal plants offer sustainable and natural alternatives to synthetic medicines, helping preserve the environment and natural resources. The cultivation of these plants can also support sustainable livelihoods in local communities. Compared to conventional chemical drugs, medicinal plants have a lower environmental impact and contribute significantly to biodiversity conservation (Popoola, 2024). According to multiple sources, medicinal plants offer several benefits, including strengthening the immune system through their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. They also support digestive health, alleviate pain and inflammation, and promote relaxation. Furthermore, medicinal plants play a significant role in treating various diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, cancer, lung diseases, and neurological disorders (Amiri & Joharchi, 2013; Fattahi Ardakani et al., 2024; Mahdavi et al., 2021; Majidi et al., 2024; Saadati et al., 2022; Umair et al., 2024; Uzun & Koca, 2020; Maleki et al., 2025). Iran has a long and rich history of traditional medicine. Today, medicinal plants continue to be widely used in Iran, and people from diverse cultural backgrounds incorporate them into their healthcare practices (Kiasi et al., 2023; Hajipour et al., 2024). The widespread use of medicinal plants in various cities underscores their enduring importance as natural resources. In many towns and villages, specialized stores, known as herbal shops, sell a diverse range of medicinal plants and are often operated by experienced herbalists. Isfahan province is a historical and tourist-attracting region in central Iran that borders the central desert. The province exhibits geographical diversity, with the Zagros Mountains to the west and desert plains to the east. The center of the province is Isfahan city (Figure 1). It is the third largest city in Iran after Tehran and Mashhad. The native culture of Isfahan province is deeply rooted in its ancient history (Eshrati & Doulabi, 2021). Isfahan province has a long-standing reputation as one of the primary centers of traditional medicine in Iran, with a rich history of using medicinal plants (Rafie Manzelat & Imani Emadi, 2015). Given Isfahan’s rich history of traditional medicine and its abundance of herbal shops, this study aimed to explore the most popular medicinal plants sold by experienced herbalists in this city. By understanding the types, consumption methods, and therapeutic uses of these plants, we sought to shed light on contemporary practices in Isfahan’s traditional medicine landscape. This research makes a novel contribution to the field, focusing specifically on the historical city of Isfahan.

 

Figure 1. Geographical location of the study area, Isfahan, Iran.

 

Materials and methods

Data for this study were obtained through semi-structured questionnaires administered to 100 apothecaries. These individuals, as herbal medicine specialists, had years of experience in the field and were directly involved with medicinal plants and customers. The age distribution of the herbal shop owners interviewed was as follows: 10% were under 30 years of age, 33.33% were between 30 and 40 years, 48.33% were between 40 and 50 years, and 8.33% were over 50 years of age. The majority of respondents were male (71.67%). In terms of educational attainment, 58.33% held undergraduate degrees, while 41.67% had earned Bachelor's or Master's degrees. The structure of the questionnaire is shown in Table 1. Plant samples were obtained as dried plant organs from apothecaries. Macroscopic morphological analyses were conducted to ensure accurate identification of the samples. The majority of samples were readily identified through macroscopic examination. Taxonomic identification of plant species was performed by botanists using established taxonomic methods and identification keys (Assadi, 1989-2016). The specimens were deposited in the Herbarium of Payame Noor University of Isfahan. Their scientific names were verified using the POWO website (https://powo.science.kew.org/). Finally, the collected data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel® 2019. Figure 2 shows some herbal markets of Isfahan.

Table 1. Structure of the questionnaire used to interview the informants.

Questionnaire parts

Details

Demographic information

Name, gender, age, address of herbal market, level of education, years of experience

Uses of plants

Category of medicinal use, list of diseases treated

Part used

Plant organs used

Preparation

Preparation method for use

Botanical information

Scientific name, family, Persian name

Complications of plant used

Side effects of the plant used

Companion plants

Common companion plants used with each listed species

 

Figure 2. A representative sample of the herbal shops surveyed for this study (photographed by the authors).

 

The data were also analyzed using quantitative ethnobotanical indices, such as RFC (Relative Frequency of Citation), UV (Use Value), RI (Relative Importance Index), and ICF (Informant Consensus Factor). RFC is calculated as the frequency of citation (FC, the number of informants mentioning the use of the species) divided by the total number of informants in the survey (N) [RFC = FC/N]. UV was calculated as UV = U/n, where U is the number of uses reported for a species and n is the total number of informants who cited the plant (Trotter & Logan, 1986). RI determines the importance of a plant species according to the number of uses of each plant and body organ systems treated by it. The RI index was calculated as RI = (Rel PH + Rel BS) × 100 / 2, where Rel PH is the relative number of pharmacological properties and Rel BS is the relative number of body systems treated (Bennett & Prance, 2000). The ICF index was calculated as ICF = (Nur - Nt) / (Nur - 1), where Nur is the number of uses reported for a disease category and Nt is the number of plant taxa used to treat the disease category (Sargin & Büyükcengiz, 2019; Yaseen et al., 2015). The classification of diseases was based on the International Classification of Primary Care (ICPC-3) method.

Results

Isfahan’s herbalists featured various combinations of local and traditional medicinal plants. Table S1 provides a detailed overview of the most frequently sold medicinal plants in Isfahan's herbal shops. This study identified 82 of the most popular plants sold by herbal stores. Avishan (Thymus vulgaris L.), Avishane Shirazi (Zataria multiflora Boiss.), Ostokhodos (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.), and Babooneh (Matricaria chamomilla L.) were the most widely used by Isfahan residents. The quantitative ethnobotanical indices for the medicinal plants are presented in Table 2. RFC is a quantitative index representing the relative importance of a plant species in a community. In other words, the RFC index quantifies the popularity of a specific plant. In this study, the RFC ranged from 0.02% (Peganum harmala L.) to 0.92% (Zataria multiflora). Lavandula angustifolia (0.88%) and Matricaria chamomilla (0.86%) also exhibited high RFC values (Table 2). A higher RFC indicates that the plant is more widely known and used by the community. By calculating the RFC for different plant species, researchers can identify the most important plants in a community and track changes in traditional knowledge over time (Ma'arif et al., 2023). Accordingly, Avishan, Ostokhodos, and Babooneh were the most consumed plants. However, the RFC has limitations. It does not account for the intensity of use or the cultural significance of the plant. Therefore, although RFC is a valuable tool, it is often used in conjunction with other indices to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of plant use.

 

Table 2. Quantitative ethnobotanical indices for the best-selling medicinal plants in Isfahan herbal shops.

Scientific name

Persian name

Family

FC

RFC

RI

UV

Allium jesdianum Boiss. & Buhse*

Bonsorkh

Amaryllidaceae    

6

0.06

2.50

0.01

Rhus coriaria L.*

Somagh

Anacardiaceae      

12

0.12

8.0

0.17

Anethum graveolens L. *

Shevid

Apiaceae               

60

0.60

32.60

0.52

Apium graveolens L.*

Karafs

Apiaceae               

72

0.72

49.0

0.20

Conium maculatum L.*

Shokarane kabir

Apiaceae                

82

0.82

50.00

0.34

Coriandrum sativum L. *

Geshniz

Apiaceae                

17

0.17

8.0

0.15

Cuminum cyminum L.*

Zireh sabz

Apiaceae              

20

0.20

9.0

0.09

Eryngium billardierei F.Delaroche*

Booghnagh

Apiaceae               

45

0.45

16.3

0.19

Ferula assa-foetida L.*

Anghoozeh

Apiaceae               

20

0.20

8.0

0.11

Ferula gummosa Boiss.*

Barijeh

Apiaceae               

27

0.27

36.0

0.52

Foeniculum vulgare Mill.*

Razianeh

Apiaceae               

21

0.21

8.50

0.111

Pimpinella anisum L.

Anison, Badian

Apiaceae          

 

30

0.30

40.0

0.43

Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague*

Zenian

Apiaceae       

30

0.30

32.80

0.24

Panax ginseng C.A.Mey.

Jensing

Araliaceae          

25

0.25

45.0

0.35

Phoenix dactylifera L.*

Khorma

Arecaceae           

4

0.04

2.00

0.01

Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f.

Alovera, Sabre zard

Asphodelaceae    

5

0.05

3.0

0.07

Achillea millefolium L.*

Boomadaran

Asteraceae          

21

0.21

20.0

0.28

Arctium lappa L.*

Babaadam

Asteraceae     

16

0.16

6.0

0.17

Cichorium intybus L*.

Kasni

Asteraceae     

35

0.34

23.50

0.25

Echinops pungens Trautv.*

Shekartighal

Asteraceae          

17

0.17

9.00

0.16

Matricaria chamomilla L.*

Babooneh

Asteraceae          

86

0.86

45.60

0.25

Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.*

Kharmaryam

Asteraceae    

23

0.23

10.0

0.18

Borago officinalis L.

Gole gavzaban

Boraginaceae 

59

0.59

75.00

0.66

Cordia myxa L.*

Sepestan

Boraginaceae      

19

0.19

8.0

0.11

Cuprella homalocarpa (Fisch. & C.A.Mey.) Salmerón-Sánchez, Mota & Fuertes*

Ghodomeh

Brassicaceae    

18

0.18

23.0

0.21

Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl*

Khakeshir

Brassicaceae         

80

0.80

46.50

0.30

Cassia angustifolia Vahl

Sana

Fabaceae          

21

0.21

17.0

0.27

Glycyrrhiza glabra L.*

Shirinbayan

Fabaceae          

34

0.34

29.3

0.20

Medicago sativa L.*

Yonjeh

Fabaceae    

14

0.14

8.0

0.21

Trigonella foenum-graecum L.*

Shanbelileh

Fabaceae    

22

0.22

28.0

0.38

Hypericum perforatum L.

Alafechay

Hypericaceae   

16

0.16

42.4

0.32

Juglans regia L.*

Gerdoo

Juglandaceae     

16

0.16

6.0

0.22

Dracocephalum officinalis (L.) Y.P.Chen & B.T.Drew*

Zoofa

Lamiaceae   

75

0.75

26.00

0.17

Dracocephalum royleanum Benth.*

Balangu

Lamiaceae        

58

0.58

22.80

0.42

Lavandula angustifolia Mill.

Ostokhodos

Lamiaceae       

88

0.88

32.6

0.12

Melissa officinalis L.*

Badranjboyeh

Lamiaceae        

62

0.62

38.60

0.23

Mentha × piperita L.*

Nanafelfeli

Lamiaceae   

13

0.13

5.0

0.06

Mentha longifolia (L.) L.

Nana

Lamiaceae       

41

0.41

60.00

0.52

Mentha pulegium L.*

Pooneh

Lamiaceae   

29

0.29

25.0

0.23

Ocimum americanum L.

Tokhmsharbati

Lamiaceae       

61

0.61

60.00

0.65

Origanum majorana L.

Marzanjoosh

Lamiaceae  

 

64

0.64

39.00

0.65

Salvia hispanica L.

Chia

Lamiaceae       

28

9.28

45.7

0.34

Salvia hydrangea DC. ex Benth.*

Gole arvaneh

Lamiaceae       

10

0.10

8.0

0.43

Salvia officinalis L.

Maryamgoli

Lamiaceae       

70

0.70

29.3

0.12

Salvia rosmarinus Spenn.

Rozmari

Lamiaceae        

68

0.68

23.00

0.28

Satureja hortensis L.

Marzeh

Lamiaceae         

10

0.10

8.0

0.39

Stachys inflata Benth.*

Poolak

Lamiaceae     

9

0.09

29.3

0.29

Stachys lavandulifolia Vahl*

Chayekoohi

Lamiaceae    

23

0.23

8.0

0.07

Thymus vulgaris L.*

Avishan

Lamiaceae   

89

0.89

35.9

0.15

Vitex agnus-castus L.*

Panjangosht

Lamiaceae   

 

31

0.31

20.00

0.32

Zataria multiflora Boiss*.

Avishane Shirazi

Lamiaceae   

92

0.92

19.5

0.19

Ziziphora clinopodioides Lam.*

Kakooti

Lamiaceae   

74

0.74

32.60

0.15

Cinnamomum verum J.Presl

Darchin

Lauraceae       

50

0.50

22.50

0.21

Linum usitatissimum L.*

Katan

Linaceae         

14

0.14

9.0

0.20

Althaea officinalis L.*

Gole khatmi

Malvaceae  

 

40

0.40

26.00

0.46

Hibiscus sabdariffa L.

Chaye torsh

Malvaceae     

25

0.25

30.00

0.11

Malva sylvestris L.*

Panirak

Malvaceae      

29

0.29

8.0

0.17

Myrtus communis L.*

Moord

Myrtaceae      

12

0.12

6.0

0.31

Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry

Mikhak

Myrtaceae     

 

7

0.07

6.50

0.54

Peganum harmala L.*

Esfand

Nitrariaceae      

2

0.02

8.0

0.11

Fumaria vaillantii Loisel.*

Shahtareh

Papaveraceae    

 

34

0.34

40.00

0.19

Linaria vulgaris Mill.

Makhlaseh

Plantaginaceae  

15

0.15

8.0

0.15

Plantago major L.*

Barhang

Plantaginaceae   

42

0.42

32.60

0.24

Plantago ovata Forssk. *

Esparzeh

Plantaginaceae   

65

0.65

29.3

0.27

Platanus orientalis L.*

Chenar

Platanaceae         

8

0.08

9.0

0.34

Avena sativa L.*

Jo dosar

Poaceae              

20

0.20

8.0

0.16

Adiantum capillus-veneris L.*

Parsiavashan

Pteridaceae          

32

0.32

19.60

0.17

Nigella sativa L.*

Siahdaneh

Ranunculaceae    

40

0.40

48.90

0.56

Ziziphus jujuba Mill.

Anab

Rhamnaceae       

22

0.22

34.0

0.45

Crataegus azarolus L.*

Kialak, Zalzalak

Rosaceae      

27

0.27

55.0

0.09

Rosa × damascena Herrm.

Roze Mohammadi

Rosaceae         

37

0.37

28.00

0.43

Rosa canina L.*

Nastarane zard

Rosaceae         

24

0.24

27.0

0.23

Salix aegyptiaca Thunb.*

Bidmeshk

Salicaceae       

11

0.11

5.0

0.05

Salix babylonica L.*

Bide majnon

Salicaceae        

11

0.11

6.0

0.21

Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze

Chaye sabz

Theaceae          

30

0.30

32.0

0.25

Urtica dioica L.*

Gazaneh

Urticaceae       

33

0.33

28.0

0.20

Valeriana officinalis L.*

Sonbolotib

Caprifoliaceae    

50

0.50

24.00

0.24

Aloysia citrodora Paláu

Behlimoo

Verbenaceae       

28

0.28

6.00

0.08

Curcuma longa L.

Zardchoobeh

Zingiberaceae     

26

0.26

34.0

0.12

Elettaria cardamomum

 (L.) Maton

Hele sabz

Zingiberaceae     

35

0.35

25.60

0.42

Zingiber officinale Roscoe

Zanjebil

Zingiberaceae    

42

0.42

30.00

0.21

Tribulus terrestris L.*

Kharkhasak

Zygophyllaceae   

22

0.22

8.0

0.10

* Native to Iran

 

FC (Frequency of Citation): The number of herbalists who mentioned the name of this plant. RFC (Relative Frequency Citation): The local importance of each taxon that is given by the FC divided by the total number of informants in the survey. RI (Relative importance): The importance of a plant species according to the number of uses of each plant taxa and body organ systems treated by it. UV (use value): The relative importance of locally known plant taxa. Among the plants introduced by herbal shops, native species were more common, reflecting a preference for locally sourced and culturally significant plants. Native plants constituted 68.3% of the medicinal plants sold by herb stores in Isfahan, whereas non-native plants constituted 31.7%. Other ethnobotanical indices, such as UV, RI and ICF, can provide additional insights into the importance of plants in a community. The UV index represents the relative importance of a plant species based on the number of reported uses for each species. Based on the results, the UV index varied between 0.01 (for Phoenix dactylifera L. and Allium jesdianum Boiss. & Buhse) and 0.66 (for Borago officinalis L..), while Borago officinalis L. recorded the highest RI value of 75.00. The ICF index expresses the consensus among informants regarding the use of plant taxa for treating different disease categories. Table 3 shows the ICF in this study.

 

 

Table 3. Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) for the diseases category

Disease category

Number of use report

Number of taxa

ICF

Respiratory system

548

44

0.92

Nervous system

160

22

0.87

Sensitivity

75

23

0.70

Blood system

66

66

0

Women's disease

45

10

0.79

Digestive system

274

58

0.79

Diabetes

37

16

0.58

Liver disorders

29

15

0.50

Infection

19

7

0.66

Headache

19

18

0.1

Heart disorders

16

15

0.1

Skin disorders

16

9

0.47

 

While medicinal plants are effective in treating various diseases, excessive or incorrect use can lead to side effects. Additionally, some medicinal plants are used in combination with others as supplements (Ekor, 2014; Singh & Gohil, 2024). Table 4 lists the potential side effects of each herb due to high consumption and its commonly used companion plants.

 

Table 4. A list of potential complications for medicinal plants and their commonly used companion plants in Isfahan.

Scientific name

Complications

Common companion plants

Achillea millefolium L.

-

-

Adiantum capillus-veneris L.

-

-

Allium jesdianum Boiss. & Buhse

-

-

Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f.

-

-

Aloysia citrodora Paláu

-

Matricaria chamomilla L., Melissa officinalis L., Citrus × aurantium L, Borago officinalis L., Carthamus tinctorius L., Lavandula angustifolia Mill.

Althaea officinalis L.

drug interaction

Ziziphus jujuba Mill., Thymus vulgaris L., Matricaria chamomilla L., Coriandrum sativum L., Malva sylvestris L., Adiantum capillus-veneris L., Cordia myxa L., Dracocephalum officinalis (L.) Y.P.Chen & B.T.Drew

Anethum graveolens L.

-

-

Apium graveolens L.

-

-

Arctium lappa L.

-

-

Avena sativa L.

increased blood sugar

-

Borago officinalis L.

heart palpitations, high pulse, increased blood pressure, addictive, liver poisoning, stomach pain, sleep disorder

Hypericum perforatum L., Citrus × aurantium L, Borago officinalis L., Citrus × aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle, Origanum majorana L., Lavandula angustifolia Mill., Valeriana officinalis L

Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze

iron deficiency, coldness, leg pain and back pain, anemia

Cinnamomum verum J.Presl, Foeniculum vulgare Mill.

Cassia angustifolia Vahl

gastrointestinal fuzz, colic and intestinal laziness

Rosa × damascena Herrm

Cichorium intybus L.

-

Fumaria vaillantii Loisel.

Cinnamomum verum J.Presl

toxic and poisoning

Pimpinella anisum L., Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze, Citrus × aurantiifolia

(Christm.) Swingle, Salvia officinalis L., Masala tea, Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry, Lavandula angustifolia Mill., Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Salvia rosmarinus Spenn., Zingiber officinale Roscoe

Conium maculatum L.

poisoning

-

Cordia myxa L.

-

-

Coriandrum sativum L.

drunkenness combined with fatigue

-

Crataegus azarolus L.

-

-

Cuminum cyminum L.

skin drying, facial wrinkles, increased blood pressure, decreased blood sugar

Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Ocimum americanum L., Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague, Pimpinella anisum L., Ziziphora clinopodioides Lam.

Cuprella homalocarpa (Fisch. & C.A.Mey.) Salmerón-Sánchez, Mota & Fuertes

-

Plantago major L., Dracocephalum royleanum Benth., Plantago ovata Forssk., Sisymbrium officinale (L.) Scop.

Curcuma longa L.

Liver  problems

-

Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl

harmful for arthritis and rheumatism

Ziziphus jujuba Mill., Dracocephalum royleanum Benth., Plantago major L., Portulaca oleracea L., Mentha longifolia (L.) L., Ocimum americanum L.

Dracocephalum officinalis (L.) Y.P.Chen & B.T.Drew

seizures and liver problems

Ziziphus jujuba Mill., Thymus vulgaris L., Matricaria chamomilla L., Viola odorata L., Althaea officinalis L., Origanum majorana L., Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam., Lavandula angustifolia Mill., Malva sylvestris L., Adiantum capillus-veneris L., Foeniculum vulgare Mill.

Dracocephalum royleanum Benth.

harmful for pregnancy

Dracocephalum royleanum Benth., Plantago major L., Cuprella homalocarpa (Fisch. & C.A.Mey.) Salmerón-Sánchez, Mota & Fuertes, Cordia myxa L., Plantago ovata Forssk., Ocimum americanum L.

Echinops pungens Trautv.

-

-

Elettaria cardamomum

(L.) Maton

intestinal disease

Pimpinella anisum L., Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze, Cinnamomum verum J.Presl, Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry, Crocus sativus L., Zingiber officinale Roscoe

Eryngium billardierei F.Delaroche

-

-

Ferula assa-foetida L.

irritation of the throat, swelling of the lips, bad for epilepsy, causing sensitivity

Cinnamomum verum J.Presl, Zingiber officinale Roscoe

Ferula gummosa Boiss.

poisoning, nausea

Ferula assa-foetida L.

Foeniculum vulgare Mill.

harmful for pregnant and children, people with allergies, kidney disease, not good for breast cysts, harmful for hot temper and slow digestion, not good for men.

Ziziphus jujuba Mill., Arctium lappa L., Thymus vulgaris L., Matricaria chamomilla L., Pimpinella anisum L., Achillea millefolium L., Marrubium vulgare L., Coriandrum sativum L., Calendula officinalis L., Cichorium intybus L., Cichorium intybus L., Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn., Origanum majorana L., Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Salvia rosmarinus Spenn. Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f., Fumaria vaillantii Loisel., Anethum graveolens L., Curcuma longa L., Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague, Cuminum cyminum L.

Fumaria vaillantii Loisel.

diarrhea, shortness of breath

Cichorium intybus L.

Glycyrrhiza glabra L.

high blood pressure, harmful for spleen and kidney

Thymus vulgaris L., Achillea millefolium L., Origanum majorana L., Mentha longifolia (L.) L.

Hibiscus sabdariffa L.

stomach pain, constipation, nausea, tinnitus, dizziness and fatigue

Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze, Citrus × aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle, Zingiber officinale Roscoe

Hypericum perforatum L.

harmful for pregnancy, increased sensitivity to sunlight, interference with chemicals

-

Juglans regia L.

-

-

Lavandula angustifolia Mill.

diarrhea, headache and skin irritation, increased eye pressure, excessive consumption of sedatives is harmful, hot-tempered people should observe, harmful for pregnancy, thirst, heart palpitations

Matricaria chamomilla L., Citrus × aurantium L., Borago officinalis L., Althaea officinalis L., Citrus × aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle, Salvia officinalis L., Origanum majorana L., Malva sylvestris L., Valeriana officinalis L, Dracocephalum officinalis (L.) Y.P.Chen & B.T.Drew

Malva sylvestris L.

-

Matricaria chamomilla L., Viola odorata L., Althaea officinalis L.

Matricaria chamomilla L.

harmful for prostate, high blood pressure, heart disease, pregnant, diarrhea and upset stomach, harmful for pregnancy, hypnotic

Thymus vulgaris L., Viola odorata L., Borago officinalis L., Citrus × aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle, Origanum majorana L., Lavandula angustifolia Mill., Malva sylvestris L., Valeriana officinalis L

Medicago sativa L.

-

-

Melissa officinalis L.

drug interactions, harmful for thyroid

Thymus vulgaris L., Citrus × aurantium L, Borago officinalis L., Citrus × aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle, Salvia officinalis L., Lavandula angustifolia Mill.

Mentha × piperita L.

headache, sore mouth, sensitivity

-

Mentha longifolia (L.) L.

sensitivity

Thymus vulgaris L., Matricaria chamomilla L., Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl, Citrus × aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle, Origanum majorana L., Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Berberis vulgaris L., Cuminum cyminum L.

Mentha pulegium L.

-

Thymus vulgaris L., Matricaria chamomilla L., Stachys lavandulifolia Vahl, Origanum majorana L., Mentha longifolia (L.) L., Lavandula angustifolia Mill.

Myrtus communis L.

-

-

Nigella sativa L.

harmful for pregnant, kidneys, in hot-tempered people, it causes swelling, pain and throat congestion, lowering blood pressure, poisoning.

-

Ocimum americanum L.

lowering blood pressure, weakness and lethargy and body coldness, should be consumed less for people who have constipation and stomach problems, dizziness and visual impairment.

Melissa officinalis L., Dracocephalum royleanum Benth., Plantago major L., Plantago ovata Forssk., Cuprella homalocarpa (Fisch. & C.A.Mey.) Salmerón-Sánchez, Mota & Fuertes, Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl, Rhus coriaria L., Zingiber officinale Roscoe

Origanum majorana L.

kidney problems

Thymus vulgaris L., Matricaria chamomilla L. Viola odorata L., Urtica dioica L., Coriandrum sativum L., Borago officinalis L., Lavandula angustifolia Mill., Malva sylvestris L., Dracocephalum officinalis (L.) Y.P.Chen & B.T.Drew

Panax ginseng C.A.Mey.

heart palpitations, increased eye pressure, effect on the brain and nerves, increased blood pressure

Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton, Myristica fragrans Houtt.

Peganum harmala L.

the seeds are poisoning if chewed.

-

Phoenix dactylifera L.

-

-

Pimpinella anisum L.

harmful for men, drug interaction

Thymus vulgaris L., Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Anethum graveolens L., Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague, Cuminum cyminum L.

Plantago major L.

-

Dracocephalum royleanum Benth., Plantago ovata Forssk., Mentha longifolia (L.) L., Ocimum americanum L.

Plantago ovata Forssk.

intestinal laziness, digestive chelation and weight gain, people with intestinal obstruction, constipated pregnant women, children under two years old, and diabetic patients should not consume

Dracocephalum royleanum Benth., Sisymbrium officinale (L.) Scop., Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl, Origanum majorana L., Mentha longifolia (L.) L.

Platanus orientalis L.

-

-

Rhus coriaria L.

-

-

Rosa × damascena Herrm.

harmful for people with intestinal obstruction, damage to stomach villi, sensitivity

Arctium lappa L., Citrus × aurantium L, Borago officinalis L., Origanum majorana L., Rosa canina L., Lavandula angustifolia Mill. Sana

Rosa canina L.

 

-

Salix aegyptiaca Thunb.

-

-

Salix babylonica L.

-

-

Salvia hispanica L.

flatulence and diarrhea, digestive problems, suffocation risk, sensitivity, calcium deposits in kidney

Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl, Ocimum americanum L.

Salvia hydrangea DC. ex Benth.

-

-

Salvia officinalis L.

harmful for acute liver problem and people receiving insulin, low blood sugar and low blood pressure, vomiting kidney dizziness, slow heart rate, gastrointestinal disease

Thymus vulgaris L., Achillea millefolium L., Sisymbrium officinale (L.) Scop., Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze, Cinnamomum verum J.Presl, Peganum harmala L., Pinus eldarica Medw.,  Citrus × aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle, Origanum majorana L., Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Olea europaea L.

Salvia rosmarinus Spenn.

anesthesia, pulmonary edema, vomiting, high blood pressure, liver problem, harmful for high fever, children under 12 years old are prohibited

Thymus vulgaris L., Matricaria chamomilla L., Stachys lavandulifolia Vahl, Althaea officinalis L., Mentha longifolia (L.) L., Lavandula angustifolia Mill.

Satureja hortensis L.

-

-

Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.

not good for cold-tempered people

Cichorium intybus L., Fumaria vaillantii Loisel.

Valeriana officinalis L.

harmful for pregnant and nursing mothers, kidney weakness, hearing and vision weakness

Pimpinella anisum L., Citrus × aurantium L, Borago officinalis L., Lavandula angustifolia Mill.

Stachys inflata Benth.

-

Althaea officinalis L., Adiantum capillus-veneris L.

Stachys lavandulifolia Vahl

allergic mouth ulcer, headache

Matricaria chamomilla L., Citrus × aurantium L, Borago officinalis L., Citrus × aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle, Lavandula angustifolia Mill.

Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry

Harmful for people with acid stomach and reflux

-

Thymus vulgaris L.

-

Ziziphus jujuba Mill., Matricaria chamomilla L., Viola odorata L., Achillea millefolium L., Salvia hydrangea DC. ex Benth., Althaea officinalis L., Salvia officinalis L., Origanum majorana L., Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam., Mentha longifolia (L.) L., Lavandula angustifolia Mill. Malva sylvestris L., Adiantum capillus-veneris L., Cordia myxa L., Dracocephalum officinalis (L.) Y.P.Chen & B.T.Drew

Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague

drug interactions, lowering blood pressure, causing constipation, women should not use too much because it contains male hormones

Thymus vulgaris L., Pimpinella anisum L., Achillea millefolium L.,  Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Anethum graveolens L., Cuminum cyminum L.

Tribulus terrestris L.

-

Alhagi persarum Boiss. & Buhse

Trigonella foenum-graecum L.

-

Urtica dioica L., Portulaca oleracea L., Teucrium chamaedrys L., Olea europaea L.

Urtica dioica L.

skin sensitivity

-

Vitex agnus-castus L.

nausea, harmful for  pregnants, body itching, menstrual, bleeding, not suitable for men, highly toxic for women, low blood pressure, low blood sugar, headache and dizziness

Matricaria chamomilla L., Viola odorata L., Achillea millefolium L., Pinus eldarica Medw., Artemisia absinthium L., Foeniculum vulgare Mill.

Zataria multiflora Boiss.

sensitivity, harmful for stomach, intestines, and gastric reflux, anemia, increased blood sugar,   palpitation and liver problems

Ziziphus jujuba Mill., Matricaria chamomilla L., Viola odorata L., Achillea millefolium L., Coriandrum sativum L., Salvia hydrangea DC. ex Benth., Althaea officinalis L., Citrus × aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle, Salvia officinalis L., Origanum majorana L., Mentha longifolia (L.) L., Lavandula angustifolia Mill., Malva sylvestris L.,  Adiantum capillus-veneris L., Cordia myxa L., Dracocephalum officinalis (L.) Y.P.Chen & B.T.Drew

Zingiber officinale Roscoe

increased body temperature and blood pressure, harmful for cold, pregnant and nursing mothers, liver problems

Thymus vulgaris L., Cinnamomum verum J.Presl, Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton, Myristica fragrans Houtt.

Ziziphora clinopodioides Lam.

women's autoimmune disease, kidney problems

Ziziphus jujuba Mill., Thymus vulgaris L., Achillea millefolium L., Stachys lavandulifolia Vahl, Althaea officinalis L., Origanum majorana L., Mentha longifolia (L.) L., Malva sylvestris L., Dracocephalum officinalis (L.) Y.P.Chen & B.T.Drew

Ziziphus jujuba Mill.

-

Thymus vulgaris L., Matricaria chamomilla L., Sisymbrium officinale (L.) Scop., Citrus × aurantiifolia

(Christm.) Swingle, Lavandula angustifolia Mill.

 

The most important and widely used plant families were Lamiaceae, Apiaceae, and Asteraceae, respectively, highlighting the diversity of plant groups used in traditional medicine in Isfahan (Figure 3). The results showed that the plant parts most commonly used by the people of Isfahan were flowers (41.1%), leaves (24.8%), and seeds (20.8%), respectively (Figure 4).

 

 

Figure 3. A visual representation of the most popular plant families in traditional medicine in Isfahan.

 

Figure 4. A visual representation of the most popular plant organs used in traditional medicine in Isfahan.

 

According to the results, the most common health conditions treated with medicinal plants in Isfahan were respiratory illnesses (such as colds), intestinal disorders, and nervous system ailments (Figure 5). The most commonly used forms of medicinal plants in Isfahan were infusions, decoctions, and distillates, respectively (Figure 6).

 

 

Figure 5. A visual representation of the primary therapeutic applications of medicinal plants in Isfahan.

 

Figure 6. A visual representation of the traditional preparation methods of medicinal plants in Isfahan.

 

Discussion

Based on interviews conducted with herbal shop owners as part of the present study, Isfahan residents demonstrated a strong preference for using medicinal plants throughout the year. This preference was attributed to several factors reported by the interviewees, including the potential side effects of chemical drugs, the time-consuming nature of medical appointments, and the often shorter treatment duration associated with medicinal plants. Consequently, individuals in Isfahan extensively use plant organs to manage and treat various health conditions. According to the interviews, most treatment periods lasted between 2 weeks and 2 months. This study showed that native plants constitute most of the medicinal plants sold by herbal stores in Isfahan. This could be due to cultural factors, historical use, or perceived benefits of using locally adapted plants. Approximately 68% of the plants used by the people of Isfahan province are native to Iran. Due to the diverse climate of Isfahan province, Isfahan is one of the main centers for the production and supply of medicinal plants in Iran. A significant volume of the medicinal plants available in this province are native and locally grown. However, some medicinal plants are also imported from abroad, due to specific needs or the inability to cultivate them domestically. Plants such as Ostokhodos, Zanjebil, Darchin, and certain special spices are among the imported medicinal plants. In some other studies in Iran, the majority of plants used by people were also native species (such as: Maleki et al., 2025; Ghafouri et al., 2025).). Therefore, it can be said that the results show that both indigenous and imported plants are used in traditional Iranian medicine, and both groups play an important role in meeting the therapeutic needs of the people. However, given the high biodiversity of Iran, indigenous plants have a significant contribution in this field (Maleki et al., 2025).

According to the results, the most important and widely used plant families included Lamiaceae, Apiaceae, and Asteraceae, respectively, indicating the diversity of plant groups used in traditional medicine in Isfahan. Lamiaceae plants are often known for their aromatic properties and potential medicinal benefits for the respiratory system (Sim et al., 2019), whereas Asteraceae plants are known for their diverse pharmacological activities (Bessada et al., 2015; Nadaf et al., 2025). In this study, the highest RFC values were observed for Zataria multiflora, Thymus vulgaris, Lavandula angustifolia, and Matricaria chamomilla. Thymus is a widely used plant for treating colds and as a spice (Uzun & Koca, 2020).  L. angustifolia and M. chamomilla are frequently used to relieve stress (Vitalini et al., 2013). Notably, most of the species in this study exhibited high RFC values and are well-known among the local people of Isfahan. The results showed that Avishan, Ostokhodos, and Babooneh were among the most frequently used medicinal plants. Avishan (Thymus vulgaris), a plant rich in phytochemical compounds such as phenols, flavonoids, and terpenoids (including monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes), is widely recognized for its numerous health benefits. These include pain relief, immune system stimulation, and antibacterial, antifungal, and antioxidant properties (Shokrzadeh et al., 2015).  Avishan is highly valued among Iranians (Meamari et al., 2022). The aerial parts of Avishan are used in Isfahan to treat stomach, kidney, and lung disorders, headaches, colds with cough symptoms, flu, cancer, and various other ailments.

Ostokhodos (Lavandula angustifolia) is one of the most valuable medicinal plants in the economic industry due to its diverse applications, including essential oil production, the dried flower market, and pharmaceutical and nutraceutical uses (Batiha et al., 2023). In addition to its wide applications in the preparation of cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, the food industry and environmental products, this plant has a solid by-product rich in polyphenols and polysaccharides (Crișan et al., 2023). Ostokhodos exhibits antioxidant properties due to its phenolic acid, flavonoid, and coumarin compounds (Dobros et al., 2022).  It is used widely in Iran for treating nervous, digestive, and respiratory diseases (Golfakhrabadi et al., 2017). According to reports from herbal shop owners, Isfahan residents use the Ostokhodos to alleviate headaches and nervous disorders, aid digestion, promote weight loss, cleanse the liver, treat wounds, and reduce joint pain associated with increased blood circulation.

Babooneh (Matricaria chamomilla) is a versatile herbal remedy with diverse and valuable properties. This plant is widely used in traditional medicine and has significant economic value. Babooneh has been used to treat stomach problems, muscle cramps, dermatitis, and minor infections. It contains phytochemical compounds such as flavonoids, coumarins, volatile oils, terpenes, organic acids, and polysaccharides (Dai et al., 2022). Based on the results, Isfahan residents use the leaves and flowers of this plant for various ailments, including digestive issues, pulmonary problems, headaches, colds with fever and cough, influenza, cancer, menstrual disorders, skin and hair conditions, and allergies. Babooneh is also used as a blood purifier (Kimura et al., 2024), milk enhancer (Bebitoglu, 2020), antibiotic, hematopoietic agent (Abbasi et al., 2022), sedative, carminative (Kabiraj & Deshmukh, 2024), choleretic (Paniagua-Zambrana et al., 2024), anti-nausea medication, pain reliever, and lubricant (Bakhtiari et al., 2023).

In this study, Borago officinalis exhibited the highest UV at 0.66. This plant, which contains various phytochemical compounds such as trans-anethole, estragole, and fenchone, has diverse applications (Rather et al., 2016). According to the results, F. vulgare was found to have 16 reported uses. Borago officinalis, on the other hand, had the highest RI at 75.00. This species is widely consumed by residents of Isfahan and neighboring cities and affects 11 body systems.

Based on Table 3, we categorized the diseases into 12 groups. The highest ICF values were observed for cold-related ailments (respiratory system) at 0.92, sedative-related conditions (nervous system) at 0.87, and digestive system and women's health at 0.79. High ICF values for specific disease categories may indicate strong local confidence in medicinal plant use for treating these ailments (Mohammadi et al., 2023).  Notably, these disease categories are commonly reported in ethnobotanical studies (Arvin & Firuzeh, 2022; Karaköse, 2022). A study of high-demand medicinal plants in Mashhad's herbal markets found that most medicinal plants were used for digestive problems (Motahhari et al., 2022), whereas the present study (in Isfahan) found a focus on respiratory ailments. Different climates and environmental conditions can influence the prevalence of certain diseases and, consequently, the types of medicinal plants used to treat them. For example, a drier climate might lead to more respiratory issues, while a more humid environment might result in more digestive problems.  Conversely, the lowest ICF value was found for blood system disorders (0), which is consistent with findings from other ethnobotanical studies conducted in Iran (Mohammadi et al., 2023). This observation clearly highlights that blood disorders have received less attention in our study. There are several reasons for this. Firstly, blood disorders, such as anemia or polycythemia, may be less frequently addressed in herbal markets due to their clinical complexities and the need for specialized treatments. Additionally, many individuals may seek herbal remedies for more common ailments, such as respiratory or gastrointestinal issues, which are more widely recognized in public culture. Consequently, the medicinal plants associated with these more prevalent conditions tend to receive greater attention. Furthermore, we utilized complementary indices such as Use Value (UV) and Relative Importance (RI) in our study to provide a more comprehensive picture of the use of medicinal plants in treating various diseases. These indices helped us examine factors like frequency and diversity of plant use among informants, thereby compensating for the limitations present of the ICF.

The results showed that Isfahan residents use various medicinal plants throughout the year. During spring, when allergic diseases are prevalent due to plant pollination, they frequently consume herbal distillates such as Baharnarenj, Golab, Kasni, and Shahtareh. In summer, to combat the heat, they use herbal syrups such as Tokhmeh Sharbati, Khakeshir, Baharnarenj, and Bidmeshk. During the cooler autumn and winter seasons, when viral diseases like colds are common, they switch to plants such as Anab, Nakhonak, Sepestan, Panirak, Avishan, and Geshniz seeds. This seasonal use of medicinal plants aligns with the preferences and needs of Isfahan's population. Similar findings have been reported in other studies (Ashayeri et al., 2013; Hosseini et al., 2017; Majidi et al., 2024). According to this study, the most frequently used medicinal plants in Isfahan are for treating cold-related, intestinal, and sedative disorders. Intestinal diseases, including colon cancer, have become increasingly prevalent in Isfahan province, mirroring a global trend (Saberzadeh-Ardestani et al., 2024). The increased prevalence of intestinal diseases in Isfahan province can be attributed to a combination of factors, including the local climate, diet, and specific health challenges (Jafari et al., 2016). Lifestyle changes and non-standard dietary habits have also contributed to the increasing incidence of these conditions among adults (Sámano et al., 2022).

Based on our observations, herbal shops in different parts of Isfahan, both in the northern (less affluent) and southern (more affluent) regions, offer a similar range of medicinal herbs, which indicates that the demand for various medicinal herbs is relatively uniform across the city. Herbal shops usually have customers from different parts of the city and do not serve only residents of their own neighborhood, which makes it difficult to link consumption patterns to a specific area. For example, herbal shops in Isfahan's Naqsh-e Jahan Square, which are traditional and famous, are visited by customers from different geographical locations in the city who come to purchase medicinal herbs. Therefore, a precise division cannot be provided in this regard. However, in general, it can be stated that residents of the upper city, due to greater economic and welfare opportunities, prioritize the use of chemical drugs and modern medical services and are less likely to visit apothecaries or rely on traditional medicine. A study conducted by Poli et al. (2025) confirms that residents of urban areas with greater economic and welfare opportunities are more inclined towards modern medicine. Flowers are the most commonly used plant organ by Isfahan residents, reflecting their significance in herbal treatments. Flowers are often valued for their aromatic and medicinal properties, whereas leaves and seeds are often valued for their nutritional and therapeutic properties. Pigments found in flowers, such as flavonoids and terpenoids, possess numerous therapeutic properties, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer effects (Liu et al., 2023). The results of this study are consistent with our earlier findings. An ethnobotanical study conducted in Ardestan city (Isfahan province) highlighted the widespread use of flowers in traditional medicine (Haerinasab & Abbasi, 2019). As with other studies conducted in the herbal market of Turkey (Uzun & Koca, 2020; Emre et al., 2021), infusion was the most common method of consuming medicinal plants in Isfahan. Infusions might be preferred due to their ease of preparation and mild effects, whereas decoctions can be used to extract concentrated compounds from plant materials (Melnyk et al., 2021).

 

Conclusion

Based on the results of this research, Isfahan's traditional apothecaries are significant repositories of medicinal plant knowledge. These establishments play a pivotal role in disseminating information about herbal remedies and promoting their use. However, challenges such as a lack of regulations, limited consumer awareness, inconsistent quality control, and diverse plant nomenclature hinder the full potential of medicinal plants in Isfahan. Despite these challenges, the future of medicinal plants in Isfahan appears promising. By standardizing products, providing customer education, reviving cultivation, fostering research collaborations, and developing local brands, apothecaries can contribute to the sustainable growth of the industry. The rich historical and cultural heritage associated with Isfahan's medicinal plants underscores the importance of preserving and promoting this knowledge. By addressing these challenges and capitalizing on opportunities, the future of medicinal plants in Isfahan can be secured.

 

Contribution statement

Shabnam Abbasi: Collected, analyzed, and interpreted the data; wrote the original draft. Peyman Aghaei: Conducted interviews and collected data. Mohammad Sadegh Amiri: Provided the initial idea and approved the final version of the manuscript. Maryam Haerinasab: Supervised the research project; contributed to the conceptualization, methodology, and evaluation of the manuscript.

 

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

 

Acknowledgement

The authors wish to thank Payame-Noor University and Farhangian University for supporting this work.

 

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Table S1. Most-selling medicinal plants in herbal shops of Isfahan.

Voucher No.

Preparation

Usage

Part used

Scientific name

No

1700

decoction

invigorating, heart strengthening, anticonvulsant, blood purification

flower

Achillea millefolium L.*

1

1701

decoction, infusion, poultice

gastrointestinal, cold, fever and cough, flu, corona, prevent hair loss, its poultice for swelling of the testicles

leaf

Adiantum capillus-veneris L.*

2

1702

decoction, infusion

excretion of kidney stones

leaf

Allium jesdianum Boiss. & Buhse*

3

1703

edible and raw

strengthening the skin and purifying the blood

leaf

Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f.

4

1704

infusion

balancing, relaxing, relieving headaches

leaf

Aloysia citrodora Paláu

5

1705

decoction, infusion, poultice

treatment of asthma, bronchitis, muscle nerve, cold with symptoms of fever and cough, influenza, corona, lubricant, pulmonary, antibacterial, pain reliever for general body pain, useful for sore throat, skin diseases

leaf, flower, root (each separately)

Althaea officinalis L.*

6

1706

edible

blood fat reducer, wind breaker, hiccups relief

leaf

Anethum graveolens L. *

7

1707

edible

treatment of rheumatism, stone breaker, fat burner and anti-migraine

leaf

Apium graveolens L.*

8

1708

infusion

blood purification, slimming, prevent hair loss

leaf, flower (each separately)

Arctium lappa L.*

9

1709

powder

rich in vitamins and fiber, weight loss control, rich in antioxidants

seed

Avena sativa L.*

10

1710

decoction, infusion, distillate, poultices

headache, cold with symptoms of fever and cough, influenza, sedative, lubricant, anti-hot flush, aid in digestion, help in the treatment of premature ejaculation, hypnotic, increase in blood pressure, pulmonary, head, sedative, cold with fever and cough, blood purifier, heart booster and nerve tonic, anti-bronchitis, anticonvulsant, kidney blockage, pulmonary, blood purifier, nerve tonic, diuretic, kidney swelling

fruit

Borago officinalis

11

1711

infusion

relaxing, cold, slimming and fat burning, digestion and bile, headache, blood purification, strong antioxidant, cancer treatment, slimming, platelet anti-adhesion, blood pressure reducer

leaf

Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze

12

1712

infusion

lubricant, pulmonary, fatty liver cleansing, amenorrhea and increased bleeding

leaf

Cassia angustifolia Vahl

13

1713

decoction, distillate

fever and liver and kidney diseases, liver, strengthening sexual powers, eliminating jaundice, facial acne

leaf, flower (each separately)

Cichorium intybus L*.

14

1714

infusion, powder, distillate, food seasoning, food

cold with symptoms of fever and cough, mild and warming, relaxing, diabetes, joint pain, blood purifier, energizing, stomach tonic, warming, anti-humidity, general body pain, fatty liver, pulmonary, headache, cancer treatment, anti-inflammatory, slimming

stem

Cinnamomum verum J.Presl

15

1715

infusion, decoction, powder, distillate, seasoning, food

anti-epileptic, treatment of intestinal disease, rheumatic, sedative, cold with symptoms of fever and cough, influenza, accelerating the shedding of smallpox and measles seeds, hypnotic and invigorating, antibacterial, cooling

seed

Conium maculatum L.

16

1716

infusion

cold with symptoms of fever and cough, flu; coronavirus

fruit

Cordia myxa L.*

17

1717

 

morrissey's disease (nerve disease that leads to hair loss).

leaf

Coriandrum sativum L.

18

1718

infusion, distillate

cardiovascular and biliary disorders

flower, seed (each separately)

Crataegus azarolus L.*

19

1719

decoction, food, distillate, tincture, essential oil

gastrointestinal infection, slimming (black cumin), digestive (cumin), amenorrheal, urinary tract infection, anti-lipidemia, warm temperament, rheumatic, increased appetite, anti-bloating, improving digestion, anti-spasm, worm, diarrhea and heart piche, breast milk booster

seed

Cuminum cyminum L.*

20

1720

infusion

cold with symptoms of fever and cough, allergy, shortness of breath, hoarseness, dry cough

root, fruit (each separately)

Cuprella homalocarpa (Fisch. & C.A.Mey.) Salmerón-Sánchez, Mota & Fuertes*

21

1721

infusion, powder, seasoning, food consumption

cancer treatment, wound treatment, anti-inflammatory, asthma, alzheimer's, rheumatoid arthritis treatment, fatty liver treatment, warm and moist nature

root

Curcuma longa L.

22

1722

 

lung, liver and kidney, complete body purification, constipation, gastrointestinal, lubricant, thirst quencher, hot and humid nature, cold with symptoms of fever and cough, flu, beneficial for the digestive system but harmful for gastritis, blood purification, brightens the skin of the body and face, relieves fatigue and removes toxins from the body, cleanses the liver, with hot water (treatment of constipation), cold water (treatment of diarrhea)

seed

Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl*

23

1723

infusion, decoction, extract, distillate, syrup, incense, poultice

colds with symptoms of fever and cough and sore throat, flu, corona, rheumatic fever, muscle pain, increased blood circulation, strengthening the immune system, sedative, anti-allergic

flower, root (each separately)

Dracocephalum officinalis (L.) Y.P.Chen & B.T.Drew*

24

1724

infusion, soaked, decoction, powder, syrup

lubricant, cold with symptoms of fever and cough, pulmonary, headache, relaxing, anti-allergic, blood purification, analgesic, strengthening the immune system

seed

Dracocephalum royleanum Benth.*

25

1725

infusion, powder

anti-cough, clearing voice and treatment of constipation

flower

Echinops pungens Trautv.*

26

1726

infusion, decoction, powder, distillate, seasoning, food, syrup, oil

headache, sedative, cold with symptoms of fever and cough, anti-flatulent and stomach tonic, anti-nausea and stomach pain reliever, general body tonic, anti-allergic, blood purification, cancer treatment

seed

Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton

27

1727

infusion

reducing blood sugar, purifying blood, reducing heart attack

flower

Eryngium billardierei F.Delaroche*

28

1728

powder, seasoning, capsule, oil, decoction, poultice, infusion

head, cold with symptoms of fever and cough, flu, blood purification, anti-microbial, reducing chronic bronchitis, toothache, intestinal, pulmonary, lubricant, anti-allergic, blood purification, intestinal, anti-cancer, stomach germ

fruit

Ferula assa-foetida L.*

29

1729

poultice, flavoring, essential oil, infusion, powder, syrup, food

pulmonary, antiseptic property, nervous disease, weakness of stomach and liver and spleen, head, sedative, cold with symptoms of fever and cough, flu, anti-allergic

gum

Ferula gummosa Boiss.*

30

1730

decoction, infusion poultices, incense

gastrointestinal, anti-allergic, blood purification, reducing menstrual pain, slimming, sore throat, sedative, regulating menstruation, anti-cough, relaxing, amenstrual, strengthening ovaries, colds with symptoms of fever and cough and sore throat, women's hormonal problems, amenorrhoeic, anti-flatulent, removal of cysts, lactation enhancer, reduction of bleeding, removal of excess hair, antibiotic, useful for the digestive system, removal of excess hair, slimming

seed

Foeniculum vulgare Mill.*

31

1731

infusion, decoction, distillate

gastrointestinal, cold with symptoms of fever and cough, gall bladder, liver, liver heat removal, blood purification, gum strengthening, anti-jaundice

seed, all parts (each separately)

Fumaria vaillantii Loisel.*

32

1732

infusion, decoction, distillate, poultices

gastrointestinal, pulmonary, head, cold with symptoms of fever and cough, anti-bronchitis, nervous cough reliever, vision enhancement and expectorant.

root

Glycyrrhiza glabra L.*

33

1733

infusion

lowering blood pressure, blood sugar control, colds, fever and cough, liver, blood concentration

flower

Hibiscus sabdariffa L.

34

1734

infusion, oil

gastrointestinal, infection, kidney and liver anti-inflammation, treatment of children's nocturnal enuresis

flower

Hypericum perforatum L.

35

1735

decoction

reducing blood sugar, treating gout, treating arthritis

leaf

Juglans regia L.*

36

1736

infusion, distillate, decoction

treatment of headache and nervous disorders, gastrointestinal disorders, slimming and weight loss, cleansing the liver, treating wounds, reducing joint pain due to increased blood circulation.

flower

Lavandula angustifolia Mill.

37

1737

distillate

laxative, tonic, detoxification, anti-backache

Flower

 

Linaria vulgaris Mill.

38

1738

powder, salad, poultice, seasoning, poultry

pulmonary, lubricant, anti-allergic, blood purification, slimming

seed

Linum usitatissimum L.*

39

1739

infusion

cold with symptoms of fever and cough, flu, allergy

flower

Malva sylvestris L.*

40

1740

infusion, decoctions, distillate, combined poultices, incense

gastrointestinal, pulmonary, headache, colds with symptoms of fever and cough, flu, cancer, menstruation, skin and hair, and allergies. also, this plant is used in isfahan city as a blood purifier, breast milk booster, antibiotic, hematopoietic, sedative, carminative and choleretic, anti-nausea, pain reliever and lubricant.

flower

Matricaria chamomilla L.*

41

1741

decoctions and raw

fattening, blood producing, bone supply, livestock and poultry feed

leaf, flower (each separately)

Medicago sativa L.*

42

1742

infusion, distillate, syrups, decoctions, poultry

gastrointestinal, sedative, cold with symptoms of fever and cough, influenza, headache, anti-allergic, ringing in the ears, anti-inflammatory, raising blood pressure, hematopoietic, anticonvulsant, heart tonic, hypnotic

leaf

Melissa officinalis L.*

43

1743

infusion

gastrointestinal, the slimmer

leaf, flower (each separately)

Mentha × piperita L.*

44

1744

infusion, decoction, distillate, powder, food

stomach inflammation, reducing and treating respiratory disorders, fighting the effects of colds, treating diarrhea and heartache, strengthening the stomach, generating blood, relieving heartache and colic, gastrointestinal infection, relaxing, lubricating, intestinal, pulmonary, headache, cold with symptoms of fever and cough, flu, blood purification, bladder stone expeller and anti-nausea

leaf

Mentha longifolia (L.) L.

45

1745

decoction, infusion, powder

appetizer, carminative, anti-diarrhea, hiccup reliever, relieves heartburn, anti-cough, expectorant, gastrointestinal infection, stomach warming, women's infection, gastrointestinal, pulmonary, cold with fever and cough symptoms, anti-allergic, relieves irritation stomach

leaf, flower (each separately)

Mentha pulegium L.*

46

1746

decoction

relieving skin diseases, itchy skin, removing the smell of sweat, removing parasites

leaf

Myrtus communis L.*

47

1747

powder, salad, seasoning, food, tea, distillate, poultice, oil (joint pain and hair strengthening), lotion

hair loss, rheumatism, rheumatic, pulmonary, head, sedative, cancer, pulmonary, general body tonic, anti-jaundice, blood sugar reducer, wind breaker and anti-spasm, cold with symptoms of fever and cough, flu, blood purification, blood sugar reduction, stomach and hair tonic, bone strengthening, sedative, muscle pain, gallstones

seed

Nigella sativa L.*

48

1748

syrup, infusion, decoction, poultice, livestock and poultry

quenching thirst, helping bone health due to the presence of calcium, reducing stress levels, colds with symptoms of fever and cough, high in calcium, properties of fish and shrimp, maintaining body water, slimming, lubricant, high in iron, less mucilage, relieving constipation, blood purification, coolness, relief of eczema and skin itching, lung, headache, anti-allergy, bronchitis

seed

Ocimum album L.

49

1749

decoction, distillate, syrup, incense

digestive diseases, anti-stress, anti-cancer, increase blood pressure, solve hormonal problems, pulmonary, head, sedative, flu, cold with symptoms of fever and cough, flu, sedative, sinusitis, anti-obsession, rheumatic, pulmonary, head, sedative, cold with symptoms of fever and cough, flu, anti-allergic, blood purification

leaf, flower, root (each separately)

 

Origanum majorana L.

50

1750

infusion, powder, capsule, tincture, extract, compote, pharmaceutical industry

strengthening the immune system and sexual powers, head, colds with symptoms of fever and cough, soothing general body pains, relieving fatigue, tonic for thinking and memory.

root

Panax ginseng C.A.Mey.

51

1751

edible, poultice

headache, sedative, cold with symptoms of fever and cough, flu, anti-allergic, blood purification, cancer

seed

Peganum harmala L.*

52

1752

 

gallstones

seed

Phoenix dactylifera L.*

53

1753

decoction, powder, distillate, poultice, incense

women's diseases, heartache and colic, rheumatic, lubricant, anti-allergic, blood purification, rheumatic, head, anti-allergic, pulmonary, relaxing, anti-flatulence

seed, leaf, flower (each separately)

Pimpinella anisum L.

54

1754

boil powder, poultice, syrup, decoction, decoction, peppermint distillate and pour the barhang into it, let it stay for 15 minutes, then use it.

gastrointestinal, lung lubricant for colds with symptoms of fever and cough and sore throat, flu, blood purification, cancer treatment, stomach cold, anti-allergy, insect bites, skin and hair health, sunburn

seed

Plantago major L.*

55

1755

infusion, decoction, soaked in water

constipation, treatment of menstrual discomfort, relief of inflammation, relief of rheumatism, cold with fever and cough and sore throat, flu, lung, blood purification, body cooler

seed

Plantago ovata Forssk. *

56

1756

decoction

fattening, antipyretic, anti-asthmatic, nerve weakness and skin strengthening

leaf

Platanus orientalis L.*

57

1757

powder, seasoning, food

blood purification, fat, sugar, blood pressure

seed

Rhus coriaria L.*

58

1758

infusion, powder, distillate, golab, yogurt and buttermilk have a warm taste, seasoning

calming, lubricating, sensitivity and itching and strengthening nerves, aromatic, strengthening the heart, strengthening the gums and gall bladder, treating constipation, rose oil to strengthen the sexual powers, pulmonary vein, headache

flower

Rosa × damascena Herrm.

59

1759

decoctions, syrups, distillate

strengthening the nerves, stomach ache, relieving diarrhea, purifying the blood

flower

Rosa canina L.*

60

1760

distillate

strengthening the heart and nerves

flower

Salix aegyptiaca Thunb.*

61

1761

decoction

stomach strengthening, sedative, heart tonic and antipyretic

flower

Salix babylonica L.*

62

1762

decoction, infusion, syrup

epilepsy treatment, blood sugar, bone health, reducing the risk of heart disease, lowering blood pressure, lubricant, high calcium and omega-3, diabetes treatment, blood pressure regulation, appetite suppressant, weight loss,

seed

Salvia hispanica L.

63

1763

infusion

gastrointestinal, flu, strengthening the immune system, gynecological disease (cyst)

flower

Salvia hydrangea DC. ex Benth.*

64

1764

infusion, distillate, powder, incense, poultice

intestinal pulmonary, pulmonary, cold with symptoms of fever and cough, flu, antiseptic, blood sugar, anti-allergic, blood purification, antimicrobial

flower

Salvia officinalis L.

65

1765

oil, tincture, essential oil, tea, distillate, tea, powder, salad, poultice, incense, seasoning, food, food, syrup

sedative, flu, headache (oil), cold with symptoms of fever and cough, flu, hair loss, aid in digestion, anti-allergic

leaf

Salvia rosmarinus Spenn.

66

1766

edible

enhance sexual power, treat gout, anti-diarrhea, digestive, anti-parasitic

leaf

Satureja hortensis L.

67

1767

infusion, distillate

hepatic, blood purification, fatty liver treatment

flower, seed (each separately)

Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.*

68

1768

decoction

cold with symptoms of fever and cough, flu, women's infection

leaf, stem (each separately)

Stachys inflata Benth.*

69

1769

infusion

sedative, gastrointestinal, infection

leaf, flower (each separately)

Stachys lavandulifolia Vahl*

70

1770

infusion, powder, seasoning, decoction

stomach problems, toothache, stomach tonic, anti-nausea, febrifuge, amenorrhea, strengthening women after childbirth, elimination of body toxins.

leaf, flower, seed (each separately)

Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry

71

1771

infusion, powder, seasoning, decoction

intestinal, pulmonary, head, sedative, cold with symptoms of fever and cough, flu, anti-allergic, digestive, anti-inflammatory, menstrual problems and cleansing the uterus.

leaf, flower (each separately)

Thymus vulgaris L.*

72

1772

decoctions, powders, distillate, infusions, poultices, syrups, incense, powders, oils (joint pain and hair strengthening)

intestinal, anti-allergic, cancer treatment, gastrointestinal, pulmonary, cold with symptoms of fever and cough, flu, antiparasitic, anti-inflammatory, blood purification, diarrhea, stomach antiseptic, paralysis and tremors, has male hormone. for heartache and heartache, slimming, removing the side effects of addiction

seed, flower (each separately)

Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague*

73

1773

infusion

intestinal, cardiac, antidiabetic, kidney stones

flower

Tribulus terrestris L.*

74

1774

food, infusion, decoction, powder, distillate, food

reducing blood sugar, fattening, hair strengthening, ruddy, sedative, cancer prevention, especially cancer of the gastrointestinal tract, neck, uterus and breast in women.

leaf, stem, flower (each separately)

Trigonella foenum-graecum L.*

75

1775

infusion, distillate, decoctions

reduces blood sugar, relieves shortness of breath, strengthens gums, tonsillitis, reduces blood sugar, relieves shortness of breath, anemia, reduces inflammation, slimming

leaf, root (each separately)

Urtica dioica L.*

76

1776

infusion, distillate, decoctions, syrups, pills

headache, sedative, hypnotic, neurodiabetes, anti-anxiety, hypnotic, nerve pain reliever and anti-depressant, fever reducer, cardiovascular diseases, anti-hysteria

root

Valeriana officinalis L.*

77

1777

decoctions, infusion, incense

headache, lubricant, regulation of menstruation, ovarian cyst, rheumatic, cancer, ovarian cyst, cancer treatment, regulation of menstruation, uterine and breast cyst

seed, root, flower (each separately)

Vitex agnus-castus L.*

78

1778

infusion, powder, distillate, syrup, incense, poultice, food, hot and cold compresses

gastrointestinal, pulmonary, headache, cold with cough symptoms, flu, cancer treatment, antibacterial, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, vision problems

leaf, flower (each separately)

Zataria multiflora Boiss*.

79

1779

infusion, decoction, powder, ditillate, seasoning, infusion, decoction, syrup

headache, blood purification, respiratory tract of colds with symptoms of fever and cough, flu, warming, joint pain, anti-nausea, anti-jaundice and useful for colds, strengthening intelligence and memory, reducing blood cholesterol.

rhizome

Zingiber officinale Roscoe

80

1780

infusion, decoction, distillate, syrup, seasoning, food, incense, seasoning

relieving indigestion, strengthening vision, antiseptic for respiratory tract, body pain, rheumatic, head, sedative, cold with symptoms of fever and cough, flu, anti-flatulence, antiseptic, antibacterial

flower, stem, leaf (each separately)

Ziziphora clinopodioides Lam.*

81

1781

infusion, edible

cold with symptoms of fever and cough, flu, corona, blood purification

fruit

Ziziphus jujuba Mill.

82

* Native of Iran

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